Q84 ~ Thomas Aquinas is often described as Aristotelian. How do Aquinas’ views in moral philosophy exemplify or challenge Aristotelian assumptions about the moral life? Give two specific examples of how Aquinas both appropriates and corrects Aristotle on the moral life.

84.  Thomas Aquinas is often described as Aristotelian.  How do Aquinas’ views in moral philosophy exemplify or challenge Aristotelian assumptions about the moral life?  Give two specific examples of how Aquinas both appropriates and corrects Aristotle on the moral life.

I)     Intro

A)   Setup

1)    Aristotle’s influence on Thomas

B)    Thesis

1)    While the Aristotelian notions of eudaimonia and virtue are central to Aquinas’ ethical thought, Aquinas has a very different view of the highest good and of the virtues that help one reach that highest good.

C)    Map

1)    Aristotle on Eudaimonia and Virtue

2)    Aquinas on Eudaimonia

3)    Aquinas on Virtue

II)   Aristotle on Eudaimonia and Virtue

A)   Eudaimonia

1)    The nature of eudaimonia

(a)   The ultimate/highest end of human life is “eudaimonia” or happiness.

(b)   Happiness is an activity–specifically, it is the activity that uses the highest faculties of man excellently.

(c)   Thus what is good for man is determined by man’s function.

(d)   Since man’s unique function (i.e., what sets him apart from other creatures) is to apprehend a rational principle, the human good is an activity of the soul implying a rational principle carried out excellently.

(e)   That is, happiness is activity of the soul in accordance with virtue.

2)    Further Aristotelian theses

(a)   Eudaimonia is ultimately found in the life of contemplation, primarily contemplation of the unmoved mover

(b)   Eudaimonia can be achieved in this life

(c)   Eudaimonia can be achieved through natural human powers

B)    Virtue

1)    The nature of virtue

(a)   Virtue is an enduring disposition concerned with a choice, lying in a mean, determined by a rational principle as the man of practical wisdom would determine it.

(b)   There are both intellectual and moral virtues

2)    Further Aristotelian theses

(a)   The intellectual virtues are the highest, as they are most intimately tied to humanity’s highest faculty/function.

(b)   Given Aristotle’s view of the highest good as natural, the virtues are all naturally achievable through habituation and/or learning.

III) Aquinas on Eudaimonia

A)   Aquinas’ appropriation: Acceptance of the framework

1)    Like Aristotle, Thomas argues that there must be an ultimate end, which he identifies with human happiness/wellbeing. (So his view also is eudaimonistic.)

2)    Like Aristotle, Thomas describes happiness as an activity of our highest faculty directed toward its highest object.

B)    Aquinas’ correction: Radically different content

1)    The object of contemplation

(a)   For Aquinas the highest human good, perfect happiness, is the comprehension of God (through our speculative intellect) in the beatific vision.

(b)   Aristotle’s view that the greatest happiness is found in this-worldly contemplation of the first mover is very different.

2)    Perfect happiness cannot be had in this life, but can be attained in the afterlife

(a)   Happiness in this life is incomplete

(i)    Aquinas does not reject Aristotle’s conception of happiness, but argues that it is (by Aristotle’s own standard) a description of the imperfect happiness attainable in this life.

(ii)  This imperfection extends even to the life of contemplation, since it lacks security.  (Intellectual virtues deal with things that are good by participation rather than goodness itself, i.e. God.)

(b)   The conditions of this life are not conducive to perfect happiness

(i)    Hardship, ignorance, inevitable death and loss

(c)   The nature of the appreciation required for perfect happiness is not possible in this life

(i)    The mode of knowledge depends on the nature of the knower.

(ii)  While we live in this life we have a form in corporeal matter, so we can only know other things that have such a form, or things which can be inferred from them. [1,12,11].

(d)   Thus, perfect happiness, which is found in the beatific vision, is to be found only in the afterlife.

3)    Grace

(a)   Ultimately, happiness cannot be attained by natural human power, but must be granted by God through grace.

IV) Aquinas on Virtue

A)   Aquinas’ appropriation: Acceptance of the framework

1)    Aquinas’ concept of virtue is very close to Aristotle’s

(a)   A virtue is a habit that perfects a power or faculty with respect to an act.

(b)   Virtues make something work well; every human virtue is ordered toward the proper use of free choice.

(c)   Also, like Aristotle, he says that virtues are means as regards their essence but extremes in terms of excellence.

2)    Thomas agrees with Aristotle on the character of many of the virtues

(a)   Cardinal virtues: Aristotle does not designate cardinal virtues, but as Aquinas describes them they aren’t antithetical to anything in Aristotle

(b)   The cardinal virtues can be thought of as the principle virtues associated with various faculties of the soul:

(i)    The power that is rational in essence (i.e. intellect) – prudence

(ii)  Three powers that are rational by participation

(i)    Will – justice

(ii)  Concupiscible appetite – temperance

(iii) Irascible appetite – fortitude

B)    Aquinas’ correction: Supernatural content

1)    Human happiness is twofold.

(a)   To achieve imperfect happiness our natural powers (though not without divine aid) are sufficient.

(b)   But to achieve our ultimate end, our natural powers—and therefore the perfection of those powers in natural virtues, both moral and intellectual—will be ultimately insufficient

(i)    This can be seen from the fact that they aim at an end we understand, while God is beyond our understanding.

(ii)  We need principles (sources of action) surpassing human nature.

(iii) God gives us these in the form of the theological virtues, a special participation in the divine nature granted by grace.

2)    The theological virtues

(a)   Why the theological virtues are so named

(i)    Their object is God

(ii)  They must be given by God (since they are beyond human nature)

(iii) They are made known only by divine revelation (which may suggest a reason why Aristotle, working from human reason, wasn’t aware of them).

(b)   The function of the theological virtues

(i)    They give us an accurate conception of our ultimate end (faith), the desire to attain it even though it is arduous (hope), and the beginning of supernatural rectitude of will (charity). More specifically, the functions of the virtues are:

(ii)  Faith aids the intellect in grasping supernatural principles via divine light

(iii) Hope directs will to our ultimate end as something possible to attain

(iv) Charity brings about spiritual union by conforming the will to that end. It is the measure of our participation in the inner life of God (and the determinant of the degree to which we can experience the beatific vision).

(c)   This is a major departure from Aristotle

(i)    All the virtues Aristotle discussed could be attained through learning or habituation.

(ii)  For Aristotle, the intellectual virtues are the highest; for Aquinas, the theological virtues are the highest

FYI: Material available on A. Freddoso’s website was very useful in understanding Aquinas on some of these points. Specifically, under “courses”, Freddoso lists a class on Aquinas’ ethics, and in the course materials you can find excellent notes on the “Treatise on Happiness” and “Treatise on Virtue”. (www.nd.edu/~afreddos/)